EXTENDED PROGRAM

1. Introduction to Physiology.
1.1 Definition of Physiology and its areas of interest; concept of internal and external environment for the cell and for the organism; concept of homeostasis.
1.2 General characteristics of plasma membranes: fluid mosaic model; integral and associated membrane proteins; receptors and transport proteins; difference between carriers and channels.
1.3 The movement of substances through membranes and epithelia; concept of simple or mediated diffusion through membranes; active transport; concept of symport and antiport: the examples of Na+/K+ pump and of the Na + -glucose symport.

2. Neuron physiology and generation of electrical signals.
2.1 Distribution of solutes in the different liquid compartments of the organism; resting membrane potential; equilibrium potentials of Na+ and K+.
2.2 Introduction to the nervous system: basic structure of the neuron; glial cells; myelin sheath; axonal transport.
2.3 Resting membrane potential of neurons; changes in membrane potential and generation of signals; concept of depolarization and hyperpolarization; the generation of graduated potentials (graph); concept of subthreshold and suprathreshold potential (graph); spatial and temporal summation of graduated potentials; action potential (graph); absolute and relative refractory periods (graph); saltatory conduction.
2.4 Communication between neurons: chemical synapses and electrical synapses; mechanisms of release and inactivation of neurotransmitters in chemical synapses; neuromuscular junction.

3. Skeletal and Smooth Muscle: structure and function.
3.1 The three types of muscle in our body: skeletal, cardiac and smooth; general structure of skeletal muscle fibers: myofibrils, sarcomeres, and membrane systems.
3.2 The sarcomere (schematic drawing of the organization of filaments, lines, and bands); the main sarcomeric proteins: contractile, regulatory and accessory.
3.3 Classification of muscle fibers based on metabolism and speed of contraction; concept of motor unit and motor unit recruitment; relationship between electrical and mechanical events.
3.4 General characteristics of smooth muscle cells: organization of thick and thin myofilaments; molecular mechanisms of contraction; molecular mechanisms of contraction: role of calmodulin and phosphorylation of the myosin light chain.

4. General principles of endocrine physiology.
4.1 Hormones: classification, biosynthesis, secretion; blood transport and binding to plasma proteins, free quota; circadian rhythms and hormonal secretion.
4.2 Hypothalamic-pituitary axis: role of the hypothalamus in the control of hormonal secretion; hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells; functional aspects of the pituitary portal circle; neurohypophysis hormones: oxytocin and vasopressin; adenohypophysis; endocrine growth regulation (GH).
4.3 Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: TSH, thyroid hormones T3 and T4.
4.4 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: ACTH, cortisol.
4.5 The adrenal medulla: catecholamines and adrenergic receptors; biological effects.

5. Physiology of the gastrointestinal system.
5.1 Nervous and hormonal control of gastrointestinal functions.
5.2 Motility, secretion, digestion and absorption of the main nutrients.
5.3 Functions of the exocrine pancreas, gallbladder and liver; blood glucose control;
pancreatic islet hormones: insulin, glucagon and effects on glucose, lipid and protein metabolism; mutual and complementary interactions of pancreatic hormones.
5.4 The control of body metabolism: hunger and satiety; respiratory quotient.